The importance of personalized medicine in urological cancers

authors:

avatar Fatemeh Khatami , avatar Shekoufeh Nikfar ORCID , avatar keykavos gholami , avatar Fateme Guitynavard , avatar Mandana Hasanzad ORCID , avatar Seyed Saeed Tamehri Zadeh , avatar Samira Karimaei , avatar Ahmad Reza Rezaeian , avatar Akram Mirzaei , avatar Arya Feyzabadi , avatar Seyed Mohammad Kazem Aghamir ORCID , *

Koomesh: Vol.24, issue 2; 169-182
published online: August 01, 2022
article type: Research Article
received: April 02, 2021
accepted: December 01, 2021

how to cite: Khatami F, Nikfar S, gholami K, Guitynavard F, Hasanzad M, et al. The importance of personalized medicine in urological cancers. koomesh. 2022;24(2):e152658. 

Abstract

Personalized medicine (PM) refers to a set of medical, diagnostic, and therapeutic activities and approaches based on the specific characteristics of each patient chr (;#3939;#39)s genome. In fact, individual-centered medical approaches are based on personalization, meaning that each person chr (;#3939;#39)s gene sequence and polymorphisms (SNPs) are different and explain the different courses of urological cancers and the different efficiencies of individuals in a protocol. The treatment is constant. Based on data from the Human Genome and Gene Sequence Project, along with proteomics, metabolomics, and transcriptomics information, a number of molecular biomarkers are suggested as potential targets for guided cancer therapies. In urological malignancies, the expression and clinical significance of carbonic anhydrase in type IX in the bladder, kidney, and urinary tract cancers and the primary therapeutic approaches have been discussed. Prostate membrane antigen and radiolabeled analog neuropeptide receptors for prostate cancer are considered valuable prognostic factors in clinical trials. The results of the treatment of patients with urological cancers from a person-centered medical perspective will impose a lower cost on the patient and more effective treatment, which we will discuss in this article

References

  • 1.

    Gambardella V, Tarazona N, Cejalvo JM, Lombardi P, Huerta M, Rosell S, et al. Personalized medicine: recent progress in cancer therapy. Cancers 2020; 12: 1009.

  • 2.

    Rozman D. Overview: data generation techniques: from omics to personalized approaches and clinical care. Syst Med 2021; 222.

  • 3.

    Kimura T, Egawa S, Uemura H. Personalized peptide vaccines and their relation to other therapies in urological cancer. Nat Rev Urol 2017; 14: 501-510.

  • 4.

    Dy GW, Gore JL, Forouzanfar MH, Naghavi M, Fitzmaurice C. Global burden of urologic cancers, 1990-2013. Eur Urol 2017; 71: 437-446.

  • 5.

    Mattiuzzi C, Lippi G. Cancer statistics: a comparison between world health organization (WHO) and global burden of disease (GBD). Eur J Public Health 2020; 30: 1026-1027.

  • 6.

    D'AMICO AV, Cote K, Loffredo M, Renshaw AA, Chen M-H. Pretreatment predictors of time to cancer specific death after prostate specific antigen failure. J Urology 2003; 169: 1320-1324.

  • 7.

    Nichol AM, Warde P, Bristow RG. Optimal treatment of intermediaterisk prostate carcinoma with radiotherapy: clinical and translational issues. Cancer 2005; 104: 891-905.

  • 8.

    Hsing AW, Tsao L, Devesa SS. International trends and patterns of prostate cancer incidence and mortality. Int J Cancer 2000; 85: 60-67.##https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(20000101)85:13.0.CO;2-B.

  • 9.

    Jemal A, Center MM, DeSantis C, Ward EM. Global patterns of cancer incidence and mortality rates and trends. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2010; 19: 1893-1907.

  • 10.

    Pakzad R, Rafiemanesh H, Ghoncheh M, Sarmad A, Salehiniya H, Hosseini S, Sepehri Z, Afshari-Moghadam A. Prostate cancer in Iran: trends in incidence and morphological and epidemiological characteristics. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention. 2016;17 (2):839-43.

  • 11.

    D'Amico AV, Moul J, Carroll PR, Sun L, Lubeck D, Chen M-H. Cancer-specific mortality after surgery or radiation for patients with clinically localized prostate cancer managed during the prostate-specific antigen era. J Clin Oncol 2003; 21: 2163-2172.

  • 12.

    King CR. The timing of salvage radiotherapy after radical prostatectomy: a systematic review. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2012; 84: 104-111.

  • 13.

    Morgan SC, Waldron TS, Eapen L, Mayhew LA, Winquist E, Lukka H, Genitourinary Cancer Disease Site Group of the Cancer Care Ontario Program in Evidence-based Care. Adjuvant radiotherapy following radical prostatectomy for pathologic T3 or margin-positive prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Radiotherapy and Oncology. 2008 Jul 1;88(1):1-9.

  • 14.

    Mukherji D, Eichholz A, De Bono JS. Management of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Drugs 2012; 72: 1011-1028.

  • 15.

    Klotz L. Active surveillance for prostate cancer: overview and update. Curr Treat Options Oncol 2013; 14: 97-108.

  • 16.

    Fraser M, Berlin A, Bristow RG, Van der Kwast T, editors. Genomic, pathological, and clinical heterogeneity as drivers of personalized medicine in prostate cancer. Urol Oncol 2015.

  • 17.

    Villers A, McNeal JE, Freiha FS, Stamey TA. Multiple cancers in the prostate. Morphologic features of clinically recognized versus incidental tumors. Cancer 1992; 70: 2313-2318.##https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0142(19921101)70:93.0.CO;2-T.

  • 18.

    Wolters T, Montironi R, Mazzucchelli R, Scarpelli M, Roobol MJ, van den Bergh RC, et al. Comparison of incidentally detected prostate cancer with screendetected prostate cancer treated by prostatectomy. The Prostate 2012; 72: 108-115.

  • 19.

    Taylor BS, Schultz N, Hieronymus H, Gopalan A, Xiao Y, Carver BS, et al. Integrative genomic profiling of human prostate cancer. Cancer Cell 2010; 18: 11-22.

  • 20.

    Liu W, Laitinen S, Khan S, Vihinen M, Kowalski J, Yu G, et al. Copy number analysis indicates monoclonal origin of lethal metastatic prostate cancer. Nat Med 2009; 15: 559-565.##https://doi.org/10.1038/nm0709-819a.

  • 21.

    Mehra R, Tomlins SA, Yu J, Cao X, Wang L, Menon A, et al. Characterization of TMPRSS2-ETS gene aberrations in androgen-independent metastatic prostate cancer. Cancer Res 2008; 68: 3584-3590.

  • 22.

    Cooper CS, Foster CS. Concepts of epigenetics in prostate cancer development. Br J Cancer 2009; 100: 240-245.

  • 23.

    Locke JA, Zafarana G, Ishkanian AS, Milosevic M, Thoms J, Have CL, et al. NKX3.1 haploinsufficiency is prognostic for prostate cancer relapse following surgery or image-guided radiotherapy. Clin Cancer Res 2012; 18: 308-316.

  • 24.

    Attard G, Ang JE, Olmos D, de Bono JS. Dissecting prostate carcinogenesis through ETS gene rearrangement studies: implications for anticancer drug development. J Clin Pathol 2008; 61: 891-896.

  • 25.

    Yoshimoto M, Ding K, Sweet JM, Ludkovski O, Trottier G, Song KS, et al. PTEN losses exhibit heterogeneity in multifocal prostatic adenocarcinoma and are associated with higher Gleason grade. Mod Pathol 2013; 26: 435-447.

  • 26.

    Minner S, Grtner M, Freudenthaler F, Bauer M, Kluth M, Salomon G, et al. Marked heterogeneity of ERG expression in large primary prostate cancers. Modern Pathol 2013; 26: 106-116.

  • 27.

    Mao X, Yu Y, Boyd LK, Ren G, Lin D, Chaplin T, et al. Distinct genomic alterations in prostate cancers in Chinese and Western populations suggest alternative pathways of prostate carcinogenesis. Cancer Res 2010; 70: 5207-5212.

  • 28.

    Rosen P, Pfister D, Young D, Petrovics G, Chen Y, Cullen J, et al. Differences in frequency of ERG oncoprotein expression between index tumors of Caucasian and African American patients with prostate cancer. Urology 2012; 80: 749-753.

  • 29.

    Ross HM, Kryvenko ON, Cowan JE, Simko JP, Wheeler TM, Epstein JI. Do adenocarcinomas of the prostate with Gleason score (GS) 6 have the potential to metastasize to lymph nodes? Am J Surg Pathol 2012; 36: 1346.

  • 30.

    Aryee MJ, Liu W, Engelmann JC, Nuhn P, Gurel M, Haffner MC, et al. DNA methylation alterations exhibit intraindividual stability and interindividual heterogeneity in prostate cancer metastases. Sci Transl Med 2013; 5: 169ra10-ra10.

  • 31.

    Penney KL, Sinnott JA, Fall K, Pawitan Y, Hoshida Y, Kraft P, et al. mRNA expression signature of Gleason grade predicts lethal prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 2011; 29: 2391.

  • 32.

    Sowalsky AG, Ye H, Bubley GJ, Balk SP. Clonal progression of prostate cancers from Gleason grade 3 to grade 4. Cancer Res 2013; 73: 1050-1055.

  • 33.

    Baca SC, Prandi D, Lawrence MS, Mosquera JM, Romanel A, Drier Y, et al. Punctuated evolution of prostate cancer genomes. Cell 2013; 153: 666-677.

  • 34.

    Taylor BS, Schultz N, Hieronymus H, Gopalan A, Xiao Y, Carver BS, et al. Integrative genomic profiling of human prostate cancer. Cancer Cell 2010; 18: 11-22.

  • 35.

    Schaefer A, Jung M, Mollenkopf HJ, Wagner I, Stephan C, Jentzmik F, et al. Diagnostic and prognostic implications of microRNA profiling in prostate carcinoma. Int J Cancer 2010; 126: 1166-1176.

  • 36.

    Leite KR, Tomiyama A, Reis ST, Sousa-Canavez JM, Saudo A, Dall'Oglio MF, et al. MicroRNA-100 expression is independently related to biochemical recurrence of prostate cancer. J Urol 2011; 185: 1118-1122.

  • 37.

    Spahn M, Kneitz S, Scholz CJ, Stenger N, Rdiger T, Strbel P, et al. Expression of microRNA221 is progressively reduced in aggressive prostate cancer and metastasis and predicts clinical recurrence. Int J Cancer 2010; 127: 394-403.

  • 38.

    Cuzick J, Swanson GP, Fisher G, Brothman AR, Berney DM, Reid JE, et al. Prognostic value of an RNA expression signature derived from cell cycle proliferation genes in patients with prostate cancer: a retrospective study. Lancet Oncol 2011; 12: 245-255.

  • 39.

    Ding Z, Wu C-J, Chu GC, Xiao Y, Ho D, Zhang J, et al. SMAD4-dependent barrier constrains prostate cancer growth and metastatic progression. Nature 2011; 470: 269-273.

  • 40.

    Berger MF, Lawrence MS, Demichelis F, Drier Y, Cibulskis K, Sivachenko AY, et al. The genomic complexity of primary human prostate cancer. Nature 2011; 470: 214-220.

  • 41.

    Kron K, Liu L, Trudel D, Pethe V, Trachtenberg J, Fleshner N, et al. Correlation of ERG expression and DNA methylation biomarkers with adverse clinicopathologic features of prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2012; 18: 2896-2904.

  • 42.

    Kron K, Trudel D, Pethe V, Briollais L, Fleshner N, van der Kwast T, et al. Altered DNA methylation landscapes of polycomb-repressed loci are associated with prostate cancer progression and ERG oncogene expression in prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2013; 19: 3450-3461.

  • 43.

    Stephens PJ, Greenman CD, Fu B, Yang F, Bignell GR, Mudie LJ, et al. Massive genomic rearrangement acquired in a single catastrophic event during cancer development. Cell 2011; 144: 27-40.

  • 44.

    Network CGAR. Comprehensive genomic characterization defines human glioblastoma genes and core pathways. Nature 2008; 455: 1061.

  • 45.

    Ding L, Getz G, Wheeler DA, Mardis ER, McLellan MD, Cibulskis K, et al. Somatic mutations affect key pathways in lung adenocarcinoma. Nature 2008; 455: 1069-1075.

  • 46.

    Grasso CS, Wu YM, Robinson DR, Cao X, Dhanasekaran SM, Khan AP, et al. The mutational landscape of lethal castration-resistant prostate cancer. Nature 2012; 487: 239-243.

  • 47.

    Nickerson ML, Im KM, Misner KJ, Tan W, Lou H, Gold B, et al. Somatic alterations contributing to metastasis of a castration-resistant prostate cancer. Hum Mutat 2013; 34: 1231-1241.

  • 48.

    Roychowdhury S, Iyer MK, Robinson DR, Lonigro RJ, Wu YM, Cao X, et al. Personalized oncology through integrative high-throughput sequencing: a pilot study. Sci Transl Med 2011; 3: 111ra21.

  • 49.

    Srigley JR, Delahunt B, Eble JN, Egevad L, Epstein JI, Grignon D, et al. The International Society of Urological Pathology (ISUP) vancouver classification of renal neoplasia. Am J Surg Pathol 2013; 37: 1469-1489.

  • 50.

    Shuch B, Amin A, Armstrong AJ, Eble JN, Ficarra V, Lopez-Beltran A, et al. Understanding pathologic variants of renal cell carcinoma: distilling therapeutic opportunities from biologic complexity. Eur Urol 2015; 67: 85-97.

  • 51.

    Bianchi M, Sun M, Jeldres C, Shariat S, Trinh Q-D, Briganti A, et al. Distribution of metastatic sites in renal cell carcinoma: a population-based analysis. Ann Oncol 2012; 23: 973-980.

  • 52.

    Choueiri TK, Motzer RJ. Systemic therapy for metastatic renal-cell carcinoma. N Engl J Med 2017; 376: 354-366.

  • 53.

    Netto GJ. Molecular diagnostics in urologic malignancies: a work in progress. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2011; 135: 610-621.

  • 54.

    Sltmann H, von Heydebreck A, Huber W, Kuner R, Bune A, Vogt M, et al. Gene expression in kidney cancer is associated with cytogenetic abnormalities, metastasis formation, and patient survival. Clin Cancer Res 2005; 11: 646-655.

  • 55.

    Yao M, Yoshida M, Kishida T, Nakaigawa N, Baba M, Kobayashi K, et al. VHL tumor suppressor gene alterations associated with good prognosis in sporadic clear-cell renal carcinoma. J Nat Cancer Instit 2002; 94: 1569-1575.

  • 56.

    Choueiri TK, Vaziri SA, Jaeger E, Elson P, Wood L, Bhalla IP, et al. von Hippel-Lindau gene status and response to vascular endothelial growth factor targeted therapy for metastatic clear cell renal cell carcinoma. J Urology 2008; 180: 860-866.

  • 57.

    Omidi Y, Barar J. Targeting tumor microenvironment: crossing tumor interstitial fluid by multifunctional nanomedicines. BioImpacts 2014; 4: 55.

  • 58.

    Grabmaier K, Vissers JL, De Weijert MC, OosterwijkWakka JC, Van Bokhoven A, Brakenhoff RH, et al. Molecular cloning and immunogenicity of renal cell carcinomaassociated antigen G250. Int J Cancer 2000; 85: 865-870.##https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(20000315)85:63.0.CO;2-Q.

  • 59.

    de Martino M, Klatte T, Seligson DB, LaRochelle J, Shuch B, Caliliw R, et al. CA9 gene: single nucleotide polymorphism predicts metastatic renal cell carcinoma prognosis. J Urol 2009; 182: 728-734.

  • 60.

    Aoun F, Kourie HR, Artigas C, Roumegure T. Next revolution in molecular theranostics: personalized medicine for urologic cancers. Future Oncol 2015; 11: 2205-2219.

  • 61.

    Chen W, Hill H, Christie A, Kim MS, Holloman E, Pavia-Jimenez A, et al. Targeting renal cell carcinoma with a HIF-2 antagonist. Nature 2016; 539: 112-117.

  • 62.

    Shah JB, McConkey DJ, Dinney CP. New strategies in muscle-invasive bladder cancer: on the road to personalized medicine. Clin Cancer Res 2011; 17: 2608-2612.

  • 63.

    Matulay JT, Kamat AM. Advances in risk stratification of bladder cancer to guide personalized medicine. F1000Res 2018; 7.

  • 64.

    Butterfield A, Gupta S. Next-generation sequencing in non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer-a step towards personalized medicine for a superficial bladder tumor. Transl Androl Urol 2017; 6: 1198-1202.

  • 65.

    Cooley LF, McLaughlin KA, Meeks JJ. Genomic and therapeutic landscape of non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer. Urol Clin North Am 2020; 47: 35-46.

  • 66.

    Leo R, Ahmad AE, Hamilton RJ. Testicular cancer biomarkers: a role for precision medicine in testicular cancer. Clin Genitourin Cancer 2019; 17: e176-e183.

  • 67.

    Gilligan TD, Seidenfeld J, Basch EM, Einhorn LH, Fancher T, Smith DC, et al. American Society of Clinical Oncology Clinical Practice Guideline on uses of serum tumor markers in adult males with germ cell tumors. J Clin Oncol 2010; 28: 3388-3404.

  • 68.

    Neumann A, Keller T, Jocham D, Doehn CJAU. Human placental alkaline phosphatase (hPLAP) is the most frequently elevated serum marker in testicular cancer. Aktuelle Urol 2011; 42: 311-315.

  • 69.

    Lin SY, Linehan JA, Wilson TG, Hoon DS. Emerging utility of urinary cell-free nucleic acid biomarkers for prostate, bladder, and renal cancers. Eur Urol Focus 2017; 3: 265-272.

  • 70.

    Ellinger J, Wittkamp V, Albers P, Perabo FG, Mueller SC, von Ruecker A, et al. Cell-free circulating DNA: diagnostic value in patients with testicular germ cell cancer. J Urol 2009; 181: 363-371.

  • 71.

    Peng Y, Croce CM. The role of MicroRNAs in human cancer. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2016; 1: 1-9.

  • 72.

    Voorhoeve PM, Le Sage C, Schrier M, Gillis AJ, Stoop H, Nagel R, et al. A genetic screen implicates miRNA-372 and miRNA-373 as oncogenes in testicular germ cell tumors. Cell 2006; 124: 1169-1181.

  • 73.

    Oldenburg J, Foss SD. Towards personalized medicine-are we there yet? Nat Rev Urol 2014; 11: 68-69.

  • 74.

    Horwich A, Dearnaley D, Sohaib A, Pennert K, Huddart RJ. Neoadjuvant carboplatin before radiotherapy in stage IIA and IIB seminoma. Ann Oncol 2013; 24: 2104-2107.##.