Abstract
Keywords
Anticholinesterase activity Antioxidant activity Antiaflatoxigenic activity Rumex acetosella Capsella bursa-pastoris Plantago lanceolata
Introduction
Antioxidants play an important role as a health protecting effect for human wellness. These compounds reduce the risk for diseases including cancer and heart disease. It is known that the antioxidants (vitamin C, vitamin E, carotenes, phenolic acids etc.) in natural-sourced foods have a reducing effect on disease risk such as cancer and heart diseases etc. (1). Most of the antioxidant compounds in a typical diet are derived from natural sources and belong to various classes of compounds with a wide variety of physical and chemical properties (2). The free radical scavenging activity of antioxidants in foods has been reported by Miller et al. (3). Various antioxidant activity assays have been used to monitor and compare the antioxidant activity of foods using analytical techniques. These analytical techniques measure the radical scavenging activity of antioxidants against cation radicals like the [2,2’-azinobis(3- ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)] (ABTS) or base on copper (II) reduction (CUPRAC) method (4).
Alzheimer′s disease (AD) is a physical disease that affects the brain. During the run of the disease, proteins established in the brain to form structures are called ′plaques′ and ′tangles′. This leads to the loss of connections between nerve cells, and eventually to the death of nerve cells and loss of brain tissue (5). Acetylcholinesterase (AChE; EC 3.1.1.7) is a hydrolase, the main role of which is to terminate the impulse transmission at cholinergic synapses by rapid hydrolysis of the neurotransmitter ACh. AChE inhibitors (AChEI) can inhibit the hydrolysis of ACh, and then improve the level of ACh in the specific regions of the brain (5, 6). Another cholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE; EC 3.1.1.8), is primarily found in plasma, liver, and muscle tissues. BuChE is metabolic degradation of ACh and differs from AChE for tissue distribution and sensitivity to substrates and inhibitors (7).
Recent studies showed that there was a relation between antioxidant property and cholinesterase inhibitory activity (8). AD is probably associated with multifaceted etiologies and pathogenic phenomena, and all mechanisms seem to share oxidative stress as a unifying factor, which is thought to have a causative role in the pathogenesis of AD recently (9). For this reason, natural products are the most important source of antioxidants which can be beneficial for treatment of Alzheimer’s disease.
Various chemical structures of mycotoxins, are the secondary metabolites, and modes of their actions are produced by various fungal species. There are more than 300 known mycotoxins classified as hepatotoxins, nephrotoxins, neurotoxins, and immunotoxins by clinicians, and as teratogens, mutagens, carcinogens, and allergens by cell biologists (10). Common mycotoxins include aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, ergot alkaloids, fumonisins, patulin, trichothecenes, and zearalenone (11). Aflatoxins (AFs) have the most acute toxic effects in humans and carcinogenic effects in susceptible animals among all mycotoxins (12). AFs, which are difuranocoumarin derivatives, are the toxic metabolites generated by the genus Aspergillus that include A. flavus, A. parasiticus, A. nomius, A. tamari, and A. bombycis. The major AFs, B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), and G2 (AFG2), are mainly present in cereals, peanuts, corn, nuts, and cottonseeds, and also the order of their toxicity is AFB1 > AFG1 > AFB2 > AFG2 (13). The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified AFB1 as a human carcinogen (Group 1), and AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2 as possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B). AFs also have toxigenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic effects (14). Because of these hazardous properties of aflatoxins, scientists have continued to search the new natural and/or synthetic aflatoxin inhibitors.
Turkey has highly rich floras of medicinal and aromatic plants because of having various climate conditions in different regions (15, 16). One of these regions is Middle Black Sea Region, which has highly plant diversity and rich cultures, especially Ordu Province (17). Ordu is situated within the Euxianian section of the Euro-Siberian floristic region (18-22).
This region has a great deal of wild edible plants. It is known that they have many medicinal properties (Table 1) (23-25).
An ethnopharmacobotanical study has revealed that there is a strong relationship between the medicinal plants and food medicine (26). Arum spp., Capsella bursa-pastoris, Ornithogalum sigmoideum, Plantago lanceolata, Rumex acetosella, Rumex crispus and Silene vulgaris are known to be used as foodstuff in many different regions of Turkey (16, 20, 24 and 27-29).
The leaves of Plantago species are also used for the treatment of wound and maturation of abscess in Turkey. Moreover P. lanceolata shows a significant constipation, expectorant, and diuretic activitiy (30).
Rumex spp. is used as poultice for maturation of fruncle in Turkey. The roots of Rumex acetosella have diuretic, cholagogue, and antipyretic activity. In addition, Rumex crispus has tonic, blood cleansing, digestive, and laxative effects (30).
S. vulgaris is used for bladder diseases, urinary tract infection in folk medicinal and A. millefolium has various biological activities such as diuretic, appetizing, carminative, emmenagogic, and wound healing for hemorrhoids (30). The foodstuff and medicinal uses of these edible plants are recorded in the ethnobotanical studies in Turkey (Table 1).
In this report, ten edible plants (Arum maculatum L., Ornithogalum sigmoideum Freyn et Sint., Rumex acetosella L., Capsella bursa-pastoris L., Hypericum orientale L., Achillea millefolium L. subsp. pannonica, Silene vulgaris Garcke var. macrocarpa, Coronopus squamatus Asch., Plantago lanceolata L., Rumex crispus L.) (1-10) were selected by considering the uses of them in traditional medicines in Ordu Area, Turkey. The extracts of them were prepared with hexane, ethanol and water, individually, and their antioxidant, anticholinesterase, and antiaflatoxigenic activities were experimentally evaluated.
Experimental
Plant material
Plant samples were collected from Ordu in 2014. The specimens were prepared according to established herbarium techniques and identified according to Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands (18, 31- 35). The voucher specimens were deposited in the Herbarium of Istanbul University, Faculty of Forestry (ISTO), Istanbul, Turkey.
Chemicals and instrumentation
The electric eel acetylcholinesterase (AChE, Type-VI-S, EC 3.1.1.7, 425.84 U/mg), horse serum butyrylcholinesterase (BChE, EC 3.1.1.8, 11.4 U/mg), 2,2-Azinobis (3- ethylbenzothiazoline- 6- sulfonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS) (≥97.5%), acetylthiocholine iodide (≥98%), and potassium persulphate (≥99.99%) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Germany). 5,5-dithiobis-(2-nitro benzoic acid) (DTNB) (≥98%), copper (II) chloride dihydrate (CuCl2.2H2O) (≥99%), neocuproine (2,9-dimethyl-1,10- phenanthroline) (≥98%) were obtained from Sigma (Germany). Butyrylthiocholine iodide (≥99%) was purchased from Fluka (Germany). Ridascreen Fast Aflatoxin (Art No.: R5202) test kit (Art No.: R1211) was obtained from R-Biopharm (Darmstadt, Germany). A Hanna pH-meter (USA), a Bandelin Sonorex ultrasonic bath (Berlin, Germany), a vortex (LMS, Japan), and a BioTek Power Wave XS ELISA Reader (USA) were used for the activity assays. All solvents were to be analytical grade.
Preparation of Extracts
The fresh plant samples were dried at the room temperature. Then, the dried plant materials (50 g) were chopped up and separated to three parts. They were macerated three times with 250 mL of hexane, ethanol, and water for 12 h, individually. After filtration of each extract, the solvents were evaporated to dryness in-vacuo, and the crude extracts were obtained, separately. The yield of the extracts varied from 0.54 to 11.73% (w/w) (Table 2).
Determination of Anticholinesterase Activity of Plant Extracts
AChE and BChE inhibitory activities were measured according to literature (36). Acetylthiocholine iodide and butyrylthiocholine iodide were used as substrates of the reaction and DTNB were used for the measurement of the anticholinesterase activity. All extracts were dissolved in ethanol to prepare their stock solution at 4000 µg/mL concentration. Aliquots of 130 mL of 100 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH 8.0), x µL (four different concentration) of sample solution, and 20 µL AChE (or BChE) solution were mixed and incubated for 15 min at 25 ºC, and 10 µL of DTNB was added. The reaction was started by the addition of 20 µL acetylthiocholine iodide (or butyrylthiocholine iodide). Galantamine was used as a standard compound and ethanol was used as a control. The absorbance was measured at 412 nm by a 96-well microplate reader after 30 min.
Determination of Antioxidant Activity of Plant Extracts
BHA and ethanol were used as a standard and control, respectively, in both antioxidant assays.
CUPRAC assay
Antioxidant activity of the extracts was determined by CUPRAC assay according to the method described by Apak et al. (37). All plant extracts were dissolved in ethanol at 1000 µg/mL concentration. Aliquots of 61 µL of 1.0 × 10−2 M copper (II) chloride, 61 µL of ammonium acetate buffer (1 M, pH 7.0), and 61 µL of 7.5 × 10−3 M neocuproine solution were mixed, x µL sample solution (2.5, 6.25, 12.5, and 25 µL) and (67 − x) µL distilled water were added to make the final volume 250 µL. After 1 h, the absorbance was measured at 450 nm.
Some Edible plants in Ordu
| Specimen | Botanical name | Family | Local name | Locality | Recorded literature traditional uses |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 36715 | Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke var. | Caryophyllaceae | Gıcırık | Çambaşı plateau, | Foodstuff (27, 28 and 16) |
| 36723 | Achillea millefolium L. subsp. pannonica | Asteraceae | Bereketotu | Çambaşı plateau, | Prostatitis, Headeache (47) |
| 36716 | Arum maculatum L. | Araceae | Nivik | Doğanlı village, | Foodstuff (20), Foodstuff for hemorrhoid (24) |
| 36724 | Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. | Brassicaceae | Gazayağı | Çambaşı plateau, Ordu, 1800 m | Diabetes (47), Foodstuff (20, 27, 28 and 16), Kidney stones, analgesic for pain in the kidney (24), Constipation, diuretic (48, 49) Foodstuff for intestine (50) Impotence (51) |
| 36721 | Coronopus squamatus (Forssk.) Asch. (Lepidium coronopus (L.) Al-Shehbaz) | Brassicaceae | Kedidili | Çambaşı plateau, | - |
| 36725 | Hypericum orientale L. | Guttiferae | Yayla kekiği | Çambaşı plateau, | Sedative (52) |
| 36714 | Ornithogalum sigmoideum Freyn et Sint. | Liliaceae | Sakarca | Altınyurt village, | Foodstuff (20, 24) |
| 36722 | Plantago lanceolata L. | Plantaginaceae | Kurtbaşı | Çambaşı plateau, | Burns, antiasthmatic, cut, contusion, eczema |
| 36720 | Rumex acetosella L. | Polygonaceae | Kuzukulağı | Çambaşı plateau, | Foodstuff (27, 28 and 16) Diabetes, hypertension (51) |
| 36717 | Rumex crispus L. | Polygonaceae | Katırtırnağı | Çambaşı plateau, | Foodstuff (27, 28), Scabies (53) |
Yields of the extracts (w/w%).
| Sample code | Plant name | Extract | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hexane | Ethanol | Water | ||
| 10 | Rumex crispus | 1.00 | 1.60 | 2.14 |
| 1 | Arum maculatum | 0.08 | 0.29 | 3.86 |
| 2 | Ornithogalum sigmoideum | 0.08 | 0.54 | 0.98 |
| 3 | Rumex acetosella | 1.76 | 2.99 | 5.46 |
| 4 | Capsella bursa-pastoris | 3.00 | 5.26 | 7.45 |
| 5 | Hypericum orientale | 4.50 | 11.73 | 6.03 |
| 6 | Achillea millefolium | 1.96 | 3.80 | 8.15 |
| 7 | Silene vulgaris | 1.92 | 4.45 | 10.46 |
| 8 | Coronopus squamatus | 2.21 | 3.21 | 1.98 |
| 9 | Plantago lanceolata | 1.25 | 0.91 | 2.48 |
In-vitro inhibition IC50 and A0.5 values (μg/mL) for AChE, BChE, antioxidant and antiaflatoxigenic activities of the extracts
| Plant | Extract | ABTS·+ assay | CUPRAC assay A0.50 (µg/mL)c | AChE assay | BChE assay | Anti- aflatoxigenic activity (inhibition %) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| hexane | 153.99 ± 0.15 | >200 | 128.01 ± 0.53 | 23.73 ± 0.09 | 19.73 | |
| 1 | ethanol | 143.53 ± 0.23 | 190.03 ± 0.04 | 149.65 ± 0.42 | >200 | 28.94 |
| water | 106.01 ± 0.42 | >200 | >200 | 142.78 ± 0.21 | 21.05 | |
| hexane | >200 | >200 | >200 | 40.85 ± 0.68 | 40.78 | |
| 2 | ethanol | >200 | >200 | 154.01 ± 0.93 | >200 | 14.47 |
| water | >200 | >200 | >200 | >200 | 21.05 | |
| hexane | >200 | 201.45 ± 0.05 | 120.08 ± 0.75 | 51.50 ± 0.34 | 47.36 | |
| 3 | ethanol | 23.73 ± 0.65 | 25.31 ± 0.02 | >200 | 52.55 ± 0.35 | 42.10 |
| water | 47.45 ± 0.27 | 68.47 ± 0.04 | 82.74 ± 0.56 | 72.23 ± 0.94 | 23.68 | |
| hexane | >200 | 157.88 ± 0.07 | 7.24 ± 0.08 | 21.15 ± 0.15 | 73.68 | |
| 4 | ethanol | 174.98 ± 0.89 | >200 | >200 | 89.45 ± 0.63 | 32.89 |
| water | 66.14 ± 0.74 | 168.13 ± 0.07 | >200 | >200 | 32.89 | |
| hexane | 114.49 ± 0.12 | 124.80 ± 0.06 | >200 | >200 | 18.42 | |
| 5 | ethanol | 54.92 ± 0.32 | 67.65 ± 0.06 | 165.20 ± 0.62 | 50.57 ± 0.32 | 7.89 |
| water | 42.39 ± 0.54 | 58.06 ± 0.02 | >200 | >200 | 5.26 | |
| hexane | >200 | >200 | 27.24 ± 0.46 | 6.40 ± 0.08 | 63.15 | |
| 6 | ethanol | 149.36 ± 0.98 | 171.76 ± 0.02 | >200 | 49.57 ± 0.76 | 39.47 |
| water | 83.31 ± 0.35 | 117.63 ± 0.05 | 119.72 ± 0.38 | >200 | 40.78 | |
| hexane | >200 | >200 | >200 | >200 | 47.36 | |
| 7 | ethanol | 199.02 ± 0.78 | >200 | 95.13 ± 0.13 | >200 | 28.94 |
| water | 91.59 ± 0.41 | 76.72 ± 0.07 | NCa | >200 | 17.10 | |
| hexane | >200 | 198.67 ± 0.04 | NCa | 107.79 ± 0.48 | 34.21 | |
| 8 | ethanol | 91.31 ± 0.25 | 51.77 ± 0.08 | 50.12 ± 0.26 | NCa | 52.63 |
| water | >200 | 115.04 ± 0.04 | NCa | 117.26 ± 0.86 | 21.05 | |
| hexane | >200 | >200 | NCa | >200 | 30.26 | |
| 9 | ethanol | 39.28 ± 0.39 | 40.65 ± 0.08 | >200 | 195.86 ± 0.99 | 88.15 |
| water | >200 | 57.02 ± 0.01 | >200 | 192.46 ± 0.21 | 43.42 | |
| hexane | 62.08 ± 0.56 | >200 | 36.98 ± 0.89 | 93.42 ± 1.96 | 52.63 | |
| 10 | ethanol | 42.85 ± 0.47 | 14.92 ± 0.07 | 57.82 ± 0.35 | >200 | 57.89 |
| water | 40.22 ± 0.78 | 23.10 ± 0.06 | 82.44 ± 0.47 | 72.14 ± 0.64 | 1.3 | |
| dBHA | 1.18 ± 0.03 | 1.45 ± 0.02 | - | - | - | |
| eGalantamine | - | - | 0.5 ± 0.01 | 17.4 ± 0.03 | - |
ABTS+. Cation Radical Decolorization Assay
ABTS+. scavenging activities of the extracts were determined according to the literature (38). The solution of ABTS+. radical was generated by dissolving 19.2 mg of 2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline- 6-sulphonic acid) (7 mM ABTS) and 3.3 mg K2S2O3 in distilled water (5 mL). The solution was kept in dark for 24 h at room temperature, and the absorbance of the solution was fixed to 0.70 at 734 nm by dilution. The solutions of the samples were prepared in n-propanol at a concentration of 1000 µg/mL. The absorbance was measured in room temperature at 734 nm, after 6 min from ABTS+.addition. The decrease in the absorption was used to calculate the activities.
Antiaflatoxigenic activity assay
Fifty microlitres of the standard and extracts were transferred into separate wells. Firstly, aflatoxin standard (45 µg/mL) was added to all extract wells. Then, the solutions of enzyme conjugate and the antiaflatoxin antibody (50 μL of each one) were added to each well, respectively. After shaking and incubating the plate at room temperature for 10 min, the liquid was removed from the wells. The wells were filled with PBS and all the remaining liquid was removed. The washing step was repeated two more times. Then, 100 μL of the substrate/chromogen was added to each well. The plate was shaked and incubated at room temperature in the dark for 5 min. Finally, 100 μL of the H2SO4 (%10) was added to each well and shaked. The absorbance was measured at 450 nm and processed with RIDA®SOFT Win (Art. No. Z9999) software, dedicated to the Ridascreen® procedure. The inhibition powers were calculated against the absorption of aflatoxin standard (39).
Analytical quality assurance
The results are given as mean ± standard deviation of the mean. Statistical analyses of the data were performed with Student t-test. p-values lower than 0.05 were considered as statistically significant.
Results and Discussion
The selected plants belong to different families, such as Araceae, Liliaceae, Polygonaceae, Brassicaceae, Plantaginaceae, etc. It is known that different solvents can extract different molecules, depending on their polarities and solubilities, from plants. So the plant materials were separately extracted with hexane, ethanol, and water by maseration and biological activities of these extracts were analyzed and compared with different polarities. The yields of the extracts are given in Table 2.
Antioxidant activities of the extracts were examined using spectrophotometric assays with the ABTS cation radical scavenging activity and CUPRAC (37). Most of the extracts showed acceptable antioxidant activities (Table 3). Among the extracts, the ethanol extract of R. acetosella (3) had the highest antioxidant potential for ABTS and CUPRAC with IC50 value of 23.73 µg/mL and 25.31 µg/mL, respectively. Isbilir and Sagiroglu have reported that R. acetosella includes rutin, flavone glycosides, vitamins, carotenoids, minerals, and phenolics, so it has various biological acitivites such as antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabet, and anti-inflammatory effects. Additionally, the methanol extract of R. acetosella showed the highest antioxidant activity with IC50 value of 0.03 µg/mL in DPPH assay in this report (40). Also, Alpinar et al. tested antioxidant capacity of R. acetosella using CUPRAC method (0.12 ± 0.03 mmol g-1) and they found similar results with our study (41). It is known that Rumex genus is rich in anthracene derivatives. Wegiera et al. identified that Rumex species contain chrysophanol, physcion, emodin, aloe-emodin, barbaloin, sennoside A, and sennoside B, as anthracene derivatives oftheir studies showed that the antioxidant potentials of anthrecene derivatives were determined with various methods such as DPPH radical scavenging ability, reducing power, and superoxide scavenging activity (42).
On the other hand, the ethanol extract of P. lanceolata (9) exhibited low to moderate antioxidant activity for ABTS and CUPRAC with IC50 value of 39.28 µg/mL and 40.65 µg/mL, respectively. Ferrezzano et al. have reported that methanol : water extract of P. lanceolata includes phenolic acids, flavonoids, coumarins, lignans, lipids, and cinnamic acids (43). The antioxidant effect of this species could be related to contained substances and mostly like the results of the synergic activity of the main compounds. The antioxidant effects of O. sigmodeum (2), S. vulgaris (7), A. millefolium subsp. pannonica (6) and C. squamatus (8) species have not been investigated up to now. As seen in Table 3, the results of antioxidant assays showed that the all extracts were showed moderately antioxidant activity.
The inhibitory activities of the extracts of selected species on AChE and BChE were determined by the Ellman’s method using galantamine as the reference compound (36). The IC50 values for AChE and BChE inhibitions are summarized in Table 3. IC50 values against AChE are between 7.24 µg/mL and 165.20 µg/mL. IC50 values against BChE are between 6.40 µg/mL and 142.78 µg/mL.
The anticholinesterase activity (against acetyl- and butryl-cholinesterase enzymes) of extracts was compared with that of galantamine (IC50 = 0.5 ± 0.01), used as a standard drug against Alzheimer’s disease. Among them, the hexane extract of Capsella bursa-pastoris (4) has the highest inhibitory activity against AChE (IC50 = 7.24 ± 0.08).
C. bursa-pastoris has various biological activities such as antibleeding, anticancer, and
antithrombin, etc. because of containing minerals, vitamins, ascorbic acid, proteins, linoleic acid, fatty acids (44). Grosso et al. investigated the metabolic profile of C. bursa-pastoris with methanol extract and quercetin-6-C-glucoside, kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, fatty acids, organic acids, aminoacids, and sterols were determined. According to the presented study by Grosso et al., the methanol extract of C. bursa-pastoris had moderate inhibitory activity against AChE (19% inhibition at a concentration of 0.1 mg/mL) (44).
The hexane extract of A. millefolium subsp. pannonica (6) had the highest BChE inhibitory activity with IC50 value of 6.40 µg/mL, in our study. Karaalp et al. have previously reported that Achillea species include flavonoids and sesquiterpen lactones. It is known that flavonoids have anticholinesterase properties and several biological activities (45). Also, sesquiterpene lactones have various biological activities such as antiinflammatuar, antipyretic, antimalarial, antimicrobial, antiviral, antiphytoviral, antiulserogenic, smooth muscle contractility, immunologic, neurotoxic, and cytotoxic (46). It can be said that due to synergic interactions between these compounds and A. millefolium, this species might be an effective cholinesterase inhibitor.
Sixteen percent of the all plant extract samples have minimal or no cholinesterase inhibitory activity. This result showed that most of the active molecules against AChE and BChE were in hexane (nonpolar solvent) extract. This may be most likely due to anticholinesterase activity of nonpolar compounds found in high amounts within these extracts. The studying of nonpolar extracts for anticholinesterase activity are worth further phytochemical evaluation for identifying their active components.
Antiaflatoxigenic activities of the extracts of all selected plants were tested in-vitro according to R-Biopharm Elisa Fast aflatoxin method (39). The results of antiaflatoxigenic assay showed that the ethanol extract of P. lanceolata and A. millefolium subsp. pannonica exhibited good potential to reduce the amount of aflatoxin.
Conclusion
The selected ten edible plants (A. maculatum L., H. orientale L., O. sigmoideum Freyn et Sint., S. vulgaris Garcke var. macrocarpa, P. lanceolata L., A. millefolium L. subsp. pannonica, R. crispus L., R. acetosella L., C. bursa-pastoris L. C. squamatus Asch.), grown in Black Sea Region of Turkey, were extracted with hexane, ethanol and water, individually, and their antioxidant, anticholinesterase, and antiaflatoxigenic activities were investigated. The anticholinesterase and antiaflatoxigenic activities of all selected species were examined for the first time by the presented study. The ethanol extract of R. acetosella exhibited the highest antioxidant activity (A0.5 value of 25.31 µg/mL, for CUPRAC activity; IC50 value of 23.73 µg/mL, for ABTS activity). The hexane extract of C. bursa-pastoris showed the strongest inhibition against AChE enzyme with IC50 value of 7.24 µg/mL, and the hexane extract of A. millefolium subsp. pannonica had the highest BChE activity with IC50 value of 6.40 µg/mL. The ethanol extract of P. lanceolata exhibited the strongest inhibition against aflatoxin with 88% inhibition. The results indicated that most of the extracts of the selected plants inhibited both ChEs and aflatoxins, and also had antioxidant activity. Polar extracts such as ethanol and water, possessed strong activity in all assays, because of probably containing phenolic compounds. Also, the high anticholinesterase, significant antioxidant, and aflatoxin inhibitory activities of these some plants bring lots of advantages for its application in manifucturing food supplements.
The obtained results confirm the antioxidant, anticholinesterase, and antiaflatoxigenic activity of edible wild plants from Ordu and thus these plants can be used as source of natural food supplements.
Acknowledgements
References
-
1.
Rao AV, Agarwal S. Role of antioxidant lycopene in cancer and heart disease. J. Am. Coll.Nutr. 2000;19:563-9. [PubMed ID: 11022869].
-
2.
Zujko ME, Witkowska AM. Antioxidant potential and polyphenol content of selected food. Int. J. Food Prop. 2011;2:300-8.
-
3.
Miller HE, Rigelhof F, Marquart L, Prakash A, Kanter M. Whole grain products and antioxidants. Cereal Food. World. 2000;45:59-63.
-
4.
Apak R, Guclu K, Ozyurek M, Çelik SA. Mechanism of antioxidant capacity assays and the CUPRAC (cupric ion reducing antioxidant capacity) assay. Microchim. Acta. 2007;160:413-9.
-
5.
McLean CA, Cherny RA, Hons FWF, Fuller SJ, Smith MJ, Vbeyreuther K, Bush AI, Masters CL. Soluble pool of Aβ amyloid as a determinant of severity of neurodegeneration in Alzheimer′s disease. Ann. Neurol. 1999;46:860-6. [PubMed ID: 10589538].
-
6.
Wu ZP, Wu XW, Shen T, Li YP, Cheng X, Gu LQ, Huang ZS, An LK. Synthesis and acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase inhibitory activities of 7-alkoxyl substituted indolizinoquinoline-5,12-dione derivatives. Arch. Pharm. Chem. Life Sci. 2012;345:175-84.
-
7.
Catto M, Pisani L, Leonetti F, Nicolotti O, Pesce P, Stefanachi A, Cellamare S, Carotti A. Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of coumarin alkylamines as potent and selective dual binding site inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2013;21:146-52. [PubMed ID: 23199476].
-
8.
Boğa M, Hacıbekiroğlu I, Kolak U. Antioxidant and anticholinesterase activities of eleven edible plants. Pharm. Biol. 2011;49:290-5. [PubMed ID: 21284538].
-
9.
Shan WJ, Huang L, Zhou Q, Meng FC, Li XS. Synthesis, biological evaluation of 9-N- substituted berberine derivatives as multi-functional agents of antioxidant, inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase and amyloid-β aggregation. Eur. J. Med. Chem. 2011;46:5885-93. [PubMed ID: 22019228].
-
10.
Steyn PS. Mycotoxins, general view, chemistry and structure. Toxicol. Lett. 1995;82:843-51. [PubMed ID: 8597152].
-
11.
Bennett JW, Klich M. Mycotoxins. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2003;16:497-516. [PubMed ID: 12857779].
-
12.
Peraica M, Radić B, Lucić A, Pavlović M. Toxic effects of mycotoxins in humans. Bull.World Health Organ. 1999;77:754-66. [PubMed ID: 10534900].
-
13.
Creppy EE. Update of survey, regulation and toxic effects of mycotoxins in Europe. Toxicol.Lett. 2002;127:19-28. [PubMed ID: 12052637].
-
14.
Gazioglu I, Kolak U. Method validation for the quantitative analysis of aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, and G2) and ochratoxin A in processed Cereal-Based foods by HPLC with fluorescence detection. J. AOAC Int. 2015;98:939-45. [PubMed ID: 26268976].
-
15.
Baser KHC. Current knowledge on the wild food and non-food plants of Turkey. In: Heywood VH, Skoula M, editors. Identification of wild food and non-food plants of the Mediterranean region. Chania: Cahiers Options Méditerranéennes; 1997. p. 129-59.
-
16.
Doğan Y, Başlar S, Ay G, Mert HH. The use of wild edible plants in western and central Anatolia (Turkey). Econ. Bot. 2004;58:684-90.
-
17.
Deveci M. The diversity of plant species in Rangelands (Ordu Region, Turkey). J. Anim. Vet.Adv. 2012;11:1498-511.
-
18.
Davis PH, editor. Flora of Turkey and the east Aegean islands. Volume 1. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press; 1965. p. 286-7. 343-4.
-
19.
Kılınç M, Karakaya H. Çambaşı Yaylasının subalpin ve alpin vejetasyonu üzerinde fitososyolojik bir araştırma. J. Bot. 1992;16:195-206.
-
20.
Ozbucak TB, Kutbay HG, Akçin OE. The contribution of wild edible plants to human nutrion in the Black Sea Region of Turkey. Ethnobot. Leaflets. 2006;10:98-103.
-
21.
Ozbucak TB, Kutbay HG, Özbucak S. Ordu İli Boztepe piknik alanının florası. Ekoloji. 2006;15:37-42.
-
22.
Ozbucak TB, Kutbay HG. The flora of lower parts of Melet River (Ordu). J. Appl. Biol.Sci. 2008;2:79-88.
-
23.
Fujita T, Sezik E, Tabata M, Yeşilada E, Honda E, Takeda Y, Tanaka T, Takaishi Y. Traditional medicine in Turkey VII Folk Medicine in Middle and West Black Sea Regions. Econ. Bot. 1995;49:406-22.
-
24.
Güner A, Özhatay N, Ekim T. Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands: Supplement 2. Volume 11. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press; 2000. 4 p.
-
25.
Yücel E, Yücel Şengün İ, Çoban Z. The wild plants consumed as a food in Afyonkarahisar/Turkey and consumption forms of these plants. Biol. Divers. Conserv. 2012;5:95-105.
-
26.
Pieroni A. Medicinal plants and food medicines in the folk traditions of the upper Lucca province, Italy. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2000;70:235-73. [PubMed ID: 10837988].
-
27.
Keskin M. Kavak (Samsun) İlçesine Bağlı Bazı Köylerde Etnobotanik Bir Araştırma. (A research on ethnobotany belonging to some village of Kavak (Samsun) district). Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi. 2008;15:141-50.
-
28.
Özüdoğru B, Akaydın G, Erik S, Yeşilada E. inferences from an ethnobotonical field expedition in the selected locations of Sivas and Yozgat Provinces (Turkey). J. Ethnopharmacol. 2011;137:85-98. [PubMed ID: 21549814].
-
29.
Tuzlacı E. Türkiye’nin Yabani Besin Bitkileri ve Ot yemekleri. (Wild food plants and herbal food in Turkey). Alfa Yayınları, İstanbul. 2011:1-528.
-
30.
Baytop T. Türkiye’de Bitkiler ile Tedavi, Dünü ve Bugünü. (Therapy with medicinal plants inTurkey, past and present). 2nd ed. İstanbul: Nobel Tıp Kitabevleri; 1999. p. 1-480.
-
31.
Davis PH. Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands. Volume 2. Edinburgh University Press; 1967. 284 p. 289 and 391-2.
-
32.
Davis PH, editor. Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands. Volume 5. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press; 1975. p. 244-5.
-
33.
Davis PH, editor. Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands. Volume 7. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press; 1982. p. 513-4.
-
34.
Davis PH, editor. Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands. Volume 8. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press; 1984. p. 232-9.
-
35.
Davis PH, Mill RR, Tan K. Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands. Volume 10. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press; 1988. p. 2-64.
-
36.
Ellman GL, Courtney KD, Andres V, Feather-Stone RM. A new and rapid colorimetric determination of acetylcholinesterase activity. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1961;7:88-95. [PubMed ID: 13726518].
-
37.
Apak R, Guclu K, Ozyurek M, Karademir SH. Novel total antioxidant capacity index for dietary polyphenols and vitamins C and E, using their cupric ion reducing capability in the presence of neocuproine: CUPRAC method. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2004;52:7970-81. [PubMed ID: 15612784].
-
38.
Blois MS. Antioxidant determinations by the use of a stable free radical. Nature. 1958;181:1199-200.
-
39.
-
40.
Isbilir SS, Sagiroglu A. Total phenolic content, antiradical and antioxidant activities of wild and cultivated Rumex acetosella L. extracts. Biol. Agric. Hortic. 2013;29:219-26.
-
41.
Alpinar K, Ozyurek M, Kolak U, Guclu K, Aras C, Altun M, Celik SE, Berker KI, Bektasoglu B, Apak R. Antioxidant capacities of some food plants wildly grown in Ayvalik of Turkey. Food Sci. Technol. Res. 2009;15:59-64.
-
42.
Wegiera M, Kosikowska U, Malm A, Smolarz HD. Antimicrobial activity of the extracts from fruits of Rumex L. species. Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2011;6:1036-43.
-
43.
Ferrazzano GF, Cantile T, Roberto L, Ingenito A, Catania MR, Roscetto E, Palumbo G, Zarrelli A, Pollio A. Determination of the in-vitro and in-vivo antimicrobial activity on salivary Streptococci and Lactobacilli and chemical characterisation of the phenolic content of Plantago lanceolata infusion. Biomed. Res. Int. 2015;2005:1-8.
-
44.
Grosso C, Vinholes J, Silva LR, Guedes de Pinho P, Gonçalves RF, Valentao P, Jager AK, Andrade PB. Chemical composition and biological screening of Capsella bursa-pastoris. Rev. Bras. Farmacogn. 2011;21:635-44.
-
45.
Karaalp C, Yurtman AN, Yavasoglu NUK. Evaluation of antimicrobial properties of Achillea L flower head extracts. Pharm. Biol. 2009;47:86-91.
-
46.
Siebert DA, Tenfen A, Yamanaka CN, de Cordova CM, Scharf DR, Simionatto EL, Alberton MD. Evaluation of seasonal chemical composition, antibacterial, antioxidant and anticholinesterase activity of essential oil from Eugenia brasiliensis Lam. Nat. Prod. Res. 2014;29:289-92. [PubMed ID: 25219800].
-
47.
Yazıcıoğlu A, Tuzlacı E. Folk medicinal plants of Trabzon (Turkey). Fitoterapia. 1996;67:307-18.
-
48.
Toksoy D, Bayramoğlu M, Hacısalihoğlu S. Usage and the economic potential of the medicinal plants in Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey. J. Environ. Biol. 2010;31:623-8. [PubMed ID: 21387912].
-
49.
Toksoy D, Alkan S, Hacisalihoglu S. Usage of Non-Timber forest products by women in forest villages of Trabzon, Turkey. J. Environ. Biol. 2010;31:1013-6. [PubMed ID: 21506491].
-
50.
Sağıroğlu M, Arslantürk A, Akdemir ZK, Turna M. An ethnobotanical survey from Hayrat (Trabzon) and Kalkandere (Rize/Turkey). Biol. Divers. Conserv. 2012;5:31-43.
-
51.
Polat R, Cakilcioglu U, Kaltalioğlu K, Ulusan MD, Türkmen Z. An ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in Espiye and its Surrounding (Giresun-Turkey). J. Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:1-11. [PubMed ID: 25614105].
-
52.
Ezer N, Mumcu AÖ. Folk medicines in Merzifon (Amasya, Turkey). Turk. J. Bot. 2006;30:223-30.
-
53.
Yeşilada E, Sezik E, Honda G, Takaishi Y, Takeda Y, Tanaka T. Traditional medicine in Turkey IX: Folk medicine in north-west Anatolia. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1999;64:195-210. [PubMed ID: 10363834].